Psychological Theories of Death and Dying

Psychological Theories of Death and Dying A Critical Literature Review on Death and Dying. Great distress is suffered at the time of death; however, feelings are quickly withdrawn, and the feelings of numbness and disbelief follow for some time. Many phases of grieving have been documented by researchers. There are passing episodes of separation distress as the bereaved person continues in normal functions routine tasks. Many theories have been put forward to account for death and dying including the Kubler-Ross Model, Beckers Existential View, Freuds Theory of Evolution, the Regret Theory  put forward by Adrian Tomer and Grafton Eliason and many more small theories. The Kà ¼bler-Ross model attempts to explain the process which are experienced by people who deal with grief and tragedy. She proposed the notion of five stages in this process, which terminally ill patients go through the stages of grief are : 1) Denial 2)  Anger  3)  Bargaining  4)  Acceptance  . Kà ¼bler-Ross initially used these stages to any personal loss scenario job, income, freedom, loss of someone or divorce. Kà ¼bler-Ross did state that these steps do not necessarily occur in the stated pattern, she stated that a person will always experience at some stages in her model, although this does not apply to every person. These stages are mostly applied to news of ones own impending death. 1974, Researchers have argued true real grieving begins after the all the stages are over with, and that grief involving its own set of stages, begins with acceptance, where the Kubler-Ross stages end. Kubler-Ross studied the subject of death and dying and developed her model. She found that the dying persons typically experienced a progression toward an adjustment to and an acceptance of death. The order the stages are experiences and the time spend at each stage differs. It can be argued that the stages are not clearly explained as each stage can be interlinked with another. There is no gathered evidence that all the five stages are navigated throughout when dealing with the prospect of death. The route through the stages is not just in one direction for example the stages can occur in random order, or stages can be repeated , even in a spiral of going round and round experiencing the same thing over and over The Kubler-Ross model does not look at other agencies of support , i.e. emotional ties to family, and other relationships, also factors such as loved ones belongings causing grief regression in which depression be experienced again. The way in which loss is experienced may lead to how grief is expressed. A sudden loss or violent loss in which, may cre ate a traumatic loss which is probably tougher to cope with. Freud stated that people feared death because nobody believes in his own death. Furthermore, he stated that the unconscious does not deal with the passing of time Thus he summarised whatever one fears cannot be death because one has never died. Another theory put forward by Becker was the Existential theory. It proposed that death anxiety is real, which involves anxiety being peoples greatest root of concern. This anxiety was very intense that it has the power to generate fears and phobias of everyday life. The impact can result in fear of being alone. In line with this theory, much of peoples routine behaviour involves attempts to deny death and thus keep’s their anxiety under control. Another  theory  put forward by Adrian Tomer and Grafton Eliason was the â€Å"Regret theory† was proposed in 1996. The focus was on the method that people rated their worth of life. People generally feel more anxious if they feel that their accomplishments are not met. Studies have been focused on the cultural impact of ethnicity on attitudes toward death and dying by comparing African-Americans, Asian-Americans, and Hispanic-Americans with a comparison group of Caucasians. They compared their findings to those from Kalish’s and Reynolds’s 1970’s Death and Ethnicity Study, now thought of as a crucial study, cultural differences do exist (not studied deeply) in grieving and therefore causing problems in concurrent validity Kubler Ross’s theory. Critics also suggest that the five stages are not capable of reflecting the full range of human reactions to death and dying. Still other researchers worry that using the term depression for stage four as confusing. Critics question the emotions and ask if these are normal, healthy way to respond to dying or instead, maladaptive psychological and physical symptoms. Criticism of the stage theory put by Tanenbaum is that there exists no real evidence that stages are present in coping with death. He asserts that no evidence that dying people go through the exact Kubler-Ross stages in their proper order. Any patient could experience emotions not even mentioned in the Kubler-Ross stages, or the stages in a different order. Also, there is no evidence that people coping with their impending death move through all of stages one through five. The limitations on the method of research employed by Kubler-Ross is that her method of personal interview was a valid start to her research but another data gathering technique was needed her theory would have been more valid if she had employed this method. The flaws in her work included the gathered data by the interviewer may vary depending on the relationship between the researcher and the patient Also on what was told by the participant is not everything they feel. It has become common for positive value to be placed on the transition of each new stage. This can lead to patients being pressured by family, to move through the stages to progress. Patients may feel that they need to accept their death to die properly simply because thats what the famous theory prescribes. Also, the persons unique personality and identity may be lost as they supposedly move through these generic stages. Each persons experiences are unique and different, so each persons death process is unique. A patients environment can have a great effect on their attitude towards death. A patient in a supportive environment is likely to reveal very different st ages of dying that a patient in a negative and unsupportive environment. There is lack in any real research to help us to deal with issues surrounding dying. Most of the problems with the Kubler-Ross model is in the analysis by society and the mistreatment of her research. More interest and investigation are needed to follow-up her study with more research and data.

Eliminating Trade Distortion Policies in the United States :: Economy

Eliminating Trade Distortion Policies in the United States The corn bounty, it is to be observed, as well as every other bounty upon exportation, imposes two different taxes upon the people; first, the tax which they are obliged to contribute, in order to pay the bounty; and secondly, the tax which arises from the advanced price of the commodity in the home-market, and which, as the whole body of the people are purchasers of corn, must, in this particular commodity, be paid by the whole body of the people. Introduction The export subsidy, or bounty as it is referred by Adam Smith, has existed for many centuries. Created to augment an industry in need of assistance to the market, the export subsidy has become an outdated trade entity in the developed world. As stated above, export subsidies impose a greater hindrance to the exporting nation that must be compensated by their consumer population. As the United States prepares to host the next global round of negotiations for the World Trade Organization (WTO) in Seattle, Washington, it establishes the perfect opportunity to initiate the abolition of all export subsidies from domestic policy books worldwide by eliminating our own trade distorting programs. Export subsidies are tools used to supplement the producer’s profits from selling a commodity. They are efficient and positive when used to initiate commerce in a developing society. Adam Smith realized their intentions by mentioning that, "bounties were given for the encouragement either of some beginning manufactures, or of such sorts of industry of other kinds as were supposed to deserve particular favor" (Smith, 1776: 450). However, their purpose of origin did not legitimize their existence to Smith. The problem begins when the society grows dependent upon these additional payments because the market has been so thoroughly distorted that prices are inflated beyond normally affordable means. Producers in other nations can no longer compete with the sale price of the commodity from the subsidized nations. The competition is thereby artificially defeated. Export subsidies have reached their expiration. It is time for world markets to convince their users of their inherent inefficiency and to proceed into the next millennium with an agenda calling for freer global trading practices. This process of opening markets and eliminating barriers to trade has already caused quite a stir throughout the WTO’s member nations. In particular, the United States and the European Union (EU) will be at the forefront of the chopping block when it comes the time for discussions regarding agricultural trade. Eliminating Trade Distortion Policies in the United States :: Economy Eliminating Trade Distortion Policies in the United States The corn bounty, it is to be observed, as well as every other bounty upon exportation, imposes two different taxes upon the people; first, the tax which they are obliged to contribute, in order to pay the bounty; and secondly, the tax which arises from the advanced price of the commodity in the home-market, and which, as the whole body of the people are purchasers of corn, must, in this particular commodity, be paid by the whole body of the people. Introduction The export subsidy, or bounty as it is referred by Adam Smith, has existed for many centuries. Created to augment an industry in need of assistance to the market, the export subsidy has become an outdated trade entity in the developed world. As stated above, export subsidies impose a greater hindrance to the exporting nation that must be compensated by their consumer population. As the United States prepares to host the next global round of negotiations for the World Trade Organization (WTO) in Seattle, Washington, it establishes the perfect opportunity to initiate the abolition of all export subsidies from domestic policy books worldwide by eliminating our own trade distorting programs. Export subsidies are tools used to supplement the producer’s profits from selling a commodity. They are efficient and positive when used to initiate commerce in a developing society. Adam Smith realized their intentions by mentioning that, "bounties were given for the encouragement either of some beginning manufactures, or of such sorts of industry of other kinds as were supposed to deserve particular favor" (Smith, 1776: 450). However, their purpose of origin did not legitimize their existence to Smith. The problem begins when the society grows dependent upon these additional payments because the market has been so thoroughly distorted that prices are inflated beyond normally affordable means. Producers in other nations can no longer compete with the sale price of the commodity from the subsidized nations. The competition is thereby artificially defeated. Export subsidies have reached their expiration. It is time for world markets to convince their users of their inherent inefficiency and to proceed into the next millennium with an agenda calling for freer global trading practices. This process of opening markets and eliminating barriers to trade has already caused quite a stir throughout the WTO’s member nations. In particular, the United States and the European Union (EU) will be at the forefront of the chopping block when it comes the time for discussions regarding agricultural trade.

The Adventure – creative writing

It was an adventure I'll never forget and it changed me forever. It was the summer between my junior and senior year. I had made an outrageous decision to relinquish my employment and pursue my sailing dreams. I had sailed on a catamaran, a sailboat whose frame is set on two parallel hulls, for nearly five years but only recently had begun to compete at regattas. This was to be my last summer as an innocent child and I looked forward to all the great adventures to come. CatFight II was to be the largest and the farthest catamaran race I was to attend that summer. I planned all summer and spent hours getting the boat and trailer in perfect condition. My friend, Joel, was to accompany me to the regatta. It was held in Muskegon, Michigan, and it would take over eight hours to drive there. We would leave Thursday night and drive through the night. I was very excited because all the sailors had said that CatFight would be, if nothing else, a great learning experience. Thursday I spent all day getting gear packed and preparing for the eight-hour drive. We left a little later than planned, around eleven, but at least we were on the road. We planned to drive in shift although I feared Joel's driving ability, especially with a twenty-foot boat attached to the car, so I did my best to stay alert. Cleveland was our first detour. We seemed to have gotten off the freeway a little earlier than expected and took a scenic tour of southeast Cleveland. The view was a bit frightening, though there were many businesses, but most were gun-stores and liquor stores. Eventually we wandered back to I-90 and then off to the toll road for a quick journey to Toledo. The drive between Toledo and Cleveland was boring but I was too excited to feel fatigued. We passed through Toledo at about two o'clock A. M. Once in Michigan the drive seemed to go quickly. It was only a few short hours to Detroit, then a seemingly extremely long drive across Michigan to Muskegon, located on mid-eastern Lake Michigan. After driving through Detroit I drew weary and Joel soon took over. Joel hadn't slept during the drive to Detroit, which worried me, but I soon was asleep in the passenger seat. When I awoke we were in Muskegon and the sun was rising. We passed mansion after mansion and soon were at the gates of the sailing club. Sailors were already eating breakfast and preparing their boats. I can distinctly remember the fragrance of the lake it was like nothing I've ever smelled. It was a pure delightful aroma, which was quickly replaced by the musty smell of Joel and I. We had spent an entire night in a car and were not smelling too appeasing. Once in the parking lot we began the normal procedure setting up to race. The sailors were very friendly and helpful. The time seemed to pass so quickly it seemed like minutes and the racing for the day was already over. After the races of the first day we were exhausted. Neither of us had gotten over an hour of sleep in 36 hours. We pulled the boat to shore, took down the sails and dove into bed. It was fairly early in the day only about three P. M. the cookout and party were just beginning but we were too tired to even notice. It wasn't until the next morning we awoke. We grabbed a quick breakfast and immediately were back on the lake. After the races we hung around for the party afterward. Sailors were telling stories of horrendous seas and other unbelievable tales. There was a wide range of people there from all over the world sailors came from as far as Australia and brought with them delightful tales from â€Å"down under†. The third and last day of the regatta was the quickest. Everyone was anxious to return home. The races were fast as always and afterward people sat around and exchanged stories and tips. All ninety boats were disassembled and put onto trailers where people from all over the nation would be returning home. It was a peaceful feeling to know that we sailed against the best in the nation and even beat a few of the best in the nation. Before we left I captured a few last pictures and then we began the last leg of the trip. The journey home was not as exciting because the anticipation was gone. We knew that once we returned we would once again start another school year. It was more disappointing than anything else. As we entered Ohio the scenery distinctively changed and once near Ashtabula it seemed we had entered the wilderness. Back to the old routine, it was frightening. The regatta was fun and we learned a lot from the elder sailors but most importantly that life is about the experiences and stories. Returning home was disappointing but I guess we have to return home because without home to return to then our journey is endless.

The Heroin Epidemic Essay - 1665 Words

Volunteering and participating in service projects are two of the most rewarding activities in my opinion. Some people may find it was a hassle or only do it because they have to meet the minimum requirement for school or work. Helping others, for me, has always been somewhat second nature to me. Over many years of volunteering I believe I have developed qualities that will stick with me for life and benefit me in my career. As early as freshman year, in high school, I found myself looking for ways to give back. I started by looking for opportunities within school, where I came across the A+ tutoring program, and so my journey of giving back began. While tutoring, my patience for others really evolved, partly by choice and partly because†¦show more content†¦You would think that people would stop using when they hear the statistics, or when they see their friend die because of it, but the truth is they can’t stop because they are already addicted. Alison, a young girl using states, â€Å"From the day I started using, I never stopped. â€Å"Within one week I had gone from snorting heroin to shooting it. Within one month I was addicted and going through all my money.† (International) The expanding epidemic of unawareness is taking its toll on the adolescents of St. Louis City, St. Louis County, and the rest of the world. Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs makes it somewhat easier to understand why people use heroin. The top three levels of the pyramid, 1.social 2.esteem 3.self-actualization, show what people are trying to get out of using. Most people will begin using due to peer pressure and trying to fit in. What kids do not realize is that the first time using could lead to addiction. So they will continue using because it makes them feel better about themselves, it becomes a part of who they are. Pretty soon they look around and realize heroin is the only thing they have left, because everyone else has left. 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